{"parse":{"title":"SARS-CoV-2","pageid":62786585,"revid":1376847378,"redirects":[],"text":"

This article is about the virus that causes COVID-19. For the illness, see COVID-19. For the virus that causes SARS, see SARS-CoV-1.

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Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\n

$\"Electron$ \n

Colourised transmission electron micrograph of SARS-CoV-2 virions with visible coronae\n

$\"Illustration$ \n

Model of the external structure of the SARS-CoV-2 virion^[1]\n\n\n\n\n

● Blue:	envelope
● Turquoise:	spike glycoprotein (S)
● Pink:	envelope proteins (E)
● Green:	membrane proteins (M)
● Orange:	glycan

Virus classification $\"Edit$ \n

(unranked):\n

Virus\n

Realm:\n

Riboviria\n

Kingdom:\n

Orthornavirae\n

Phylum:\n

Pisuviricota\n

Class:\n

Pisoniviricetes\n

Order:\n

Nidovirales\n

Family:\n

Coronaviridae\n

Genus:\n

Betacoronavirus\n

Subgenus:\n

Sarbecovirus\n

Species:\n

Betacoronavirus pandemicum

Virus:\n

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

Notable variants\n

Synonyms^[2]\n

2019-nCoV
COVID-19 virus
Human coronavirus 2019
HCoV-19
SARS-2

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COVID-19 pandemic
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$\"Scientifically$ Scientifically accurate atomic model of the external structure of SARS-CoV-2. Each \"ball\" is an atom.
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\n Reference and navigation \n Bibliography of the history of COVID-19 \n Outline of the COVID-19 pandemic
\n $\"virus$ COVID-19 portal
v t e

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)^[3] is a coronavirus that causes COVID-19, the respiratory illness responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic that began in late 2019.^[4] The virus previously had the provisional name 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV),^[5]^[6]^[7]^[8] and has also been called human coronavirus 2019 (HCoV-19 or hCoV-19).^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] First identified in the city of Wuhan, Hubei, China, the World Health Organization designated the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern from January 30, 2020, to May 5, 2023.^[13]^[14]^[15] SARS‑CoV‑2 is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus^[16] that is contagious in humans.^[17]\n

SARS‑CoV‑2 is a virus of the species Betacoronavirus pandemicum (SARSr-CoV), as is SARS-CoV-1, the virus that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak.^[3]^[18] Some animal-borne coronaviruses are more closely related to SARS-CoV-2 than SARS-CoV-1 is. The closest known relative is the BANAL-52 bat coronavirus. SARS-CoV-2 is of zoonotic origin; its close genetic similarity to bat coronaviruses suggests it emerged from such a bat-borne virus.^[19] Research is ongoing as to whether SARS‑CoV‑2 came directly from bats or indirectly through any intermediate hosts.^[20] The virus shows little genetic diversity, indicating that the spillover event introducing SARS‑CoV‑2 to humans is likely to have occurred in late 2019.^[21]\n

Epidemiological studies estimate that in the period between December 2019 and September 2020 each infection resulted in an average of 2.4–3.4 new infections when no members of the community were immune and no preventive measures were taken.^[22] Some later variants were more infectious.^[23] The virus is airborne and primarily spreads between people through close contact and via aerosols and respiratory droplets that are exhaled when talking, breathing, or otherwise exhaling, as well as those produced from coughs and sneezes.^[24]^[25] It enters human cells by binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), a membrane protein that regulates the renin–angiotensin system.^[26]^[27]\n

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Terminology

During the initial outbreak in Wuhan, China, various names were used for the virus; some names used by different sources included \"the coronavirus\" or \"Wuhan coronavirus\".^[28]^[29] In January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended \"2019 novel coronavirus\" (2019-nCoV)^[6]^[30] as the provisional name for the virus. This was in accordance with WHO's 2015 guidance^[31] against using geographical locations, animal species, or groups of people in disease and virus names.^[32]^[33]\n

On 11 February 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses adopted the official name \"severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2\" (SARS‑CoV‑2).^[34] To avoid confusion with the disease SARS, the WHO sometimes refers to SARS‑CoV‑2 as \"the COVID-19 virus\" in public health communications^[35]^[36] and the name HCoV-19 was included in some research articles.^[9]^[10]^[11] Referring to COVID-19 as the \"Wuhan virus\" has been described as dangerous by WHO officials, and as xenophobic by many journalists and academics.^[37]^[38]^[39]\n

Infection and transmission

Main article: Transmission of COVID-19

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Human-to-human transmission of SARS‑CoV‑2 was confirmed on 20 January 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[17]^[40]^[41]^[42] Transmission was initially assumed to occur primarily via respiratory droplets from coughs and sneezes within a range of about 1.8 metres (6 ft).^[43]^[44] Laser light scattering experiments suggest that speaking is an additional mode of transmission^[45]^[46] and a far-reaching^[47] one, indoors, with little air flow.^[48]^[49] Other studies have suggested that the virus may be airborne as well, with aerosols potentially being able to transmit the virus.^[50]^[51]^[52] During human-to-human transmission, between 200 and 800 infectious SARS‑CoV‑2 virions are thought to initiate a new infection.^[53]^[54]^[55] If confirmed, aerosol transmission has biosafety implications because a major concern associated with the risk of working with emerging viruses in the laboratory is the generation of aerosols from various laboratory activities which are not immediately recognisable and may affect other scientific personnel.^[56] Indirect contact via contaminated surfaces is another possible cause of infection.^[57] Preliminary research indicates that the virus may remain viable on plastic (polypropylene) and stainless steel (AISI 304) for up to three days, but it does not survive on cardboard for more than one day or on copper for more than four hours.^[11] The virus is inactivated by soap, which destabilises its lipid bilayer.^[58]^[59] Viral RNA has also been found in stool samples and semen from infected individuals.^[60]^[61]\n

The degree to which the virus is infectious during the incubation period is uncertain, but research has indicated that the pharynx reaches peak viral load approximately four days after infection^[62]^[63] or in the first week of symptoms and declines thereafter.^[64] The duration of SARS-CoV-2 RNA shedding is generally between 3 and 46 days after symptom onset.^[65]\n

A study by a team of researchers from the University of North Carolina found that the nasal cavity is seemingly the dominant initial site of infection, with subsequent aspiration-mediated virus-seeding into the lungs in SARS‑CoV‑2 pathogenesis.^[66] They found that there was an infection gradient from high in proximal towards low in distal pulmonary epithelial cultures, with a focal infection in ciliated cells and type 2 pneumocytes in the airway and alveolar regions respectively.^[66]\n

Studies have identified a range of animals—such as cats, ferrets, hamsters, non-human primates, minks, tree shrews, raccoon dogs, fruit bats, and rabbits—that are susceptible and permissive to SARS-CoV-2 infection.^[67]^[68]^[69] Some institutions have advised that those infected with SARS‑CoV‑2 restrict their contact with animals.^[70]^[71]\n

Asymptomatic and presymptomatic transmission

On 1 February 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) indicated that \"transmission from asymptomatic cases is likely not a major driver of transmission\".^[72] One meta-analysis found that 17% of infections are asymptomatic, and asymptomatic individuals were 42% less likely to transmit the virus.^[73]\n

However, an epidemiological model of the beginning of the outbreak in China suggested that \"pre-symptomatic shedding may be typical among documented infections\" and that subclinical infections may have been the source of a majority of infections.^[74] That may explain how out of 217 on board a cruise liner that docked at Montevideo, only 24 of 128 who tested positive for viral RNA showed symptoms.^[75] Similarly, a study of ninety-four patients hospitalised in January and February 2020 estimated patients began shedding virus two to three days before symptoms appear and that \"a substantial proportion of transmission probably occurred before first symptoms in the index case\".^[54] The authors later published a correction that showed that shedding began earlier than first estimated, four to five days before symptoms appear.^[76]\n

Reinfection

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This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2025)

There is uncertainty about reinfection and long-term immunity.^[77] It is not known how common reinfection is, but reports have indicated that it is occurring with variable severity.^[77]\n

The first reported case of reinfection was a 33-year-old man from Hong Kong who first tested positive on 26 March 2020, was discharged on 15 April 2020 after two negative tests, and tested positive again on 15 August 2020 (142 days later), which was confirmed by whole-genome sequencing showing that the viral genomes between the episodes belong to different clades.^[78] The findings had the implications that herd immunity may not eliminate the virus if reinfection is not an uncommon occurrence and that vaccines may not be able to provide lifelong protection against the virus.^[78]\n

Another case study described a 25-year-old man from Nevada who tested positive for SARS‑CoV‑2 on 18 April 2020 and on 5 June 2020 (separated by two negative tests). Since genomic analyses showed significant genetic differences between the SARS‑CoV‑2 variant sampled on those two dates, the case study authors determined this was a reinfection.^[79] The man's second infection was symptomatically more severe than the first infection, but the mechanisms that could account for this are not known.^[79]\n

Reservoir and origin

Further information: Origin of SARS-CoV-2

No natural reservoir for SARS-CoV-2 has been identified.^[80] Prior to the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 as a pathogen infecting humans, there had been two previous zoonosis-based coronavirus epidemics, those caused by SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV.^[19]\n

The first known infections from SARS‑CoV‑2 were discovered in Wuhan, China.^[81] The nature of the virus's origins remain unclear and disputed. The original source of viral transmission to humans remains unclear, as does whether the virus became pathogenic before or after the spillover event.^[10]^[21]^[82] Because many of the early infectees were workers at the Huanan Seafood Market,^[83]^[84] it has been suggested that the virus might have originated from the market.^[10]^[85] Other research indicates that visitors may have introduced the virus to the market, which then facilitated rapid expansion of the infections.^[21]^[86] A March 2021 WHO-convened report stated that human spillover via an intermediate animal host was the most likely explanation, with direct spillover from bats next most likely. Introduction through the food supply chain and the Huanan Seafood Market was considered another possible, but less likely, explanation.^[87] Later analysis in November 2021 said that the earliest-known case had been misidentified and that the preponderance of early cases linked to the Huanan Market argued for it being the source.^[88] \n

For a virus recently acquired through a cross-species transmission, rapid evolution is expected.^[89] The mutation rate estimated from early cases of SARS-CoV-2 was of 6.54×10⁻⁴ per site per year.^[87] Coronaviruses in general have high genetic plasticity,^[90] but SARS-CoV-2's viral evolution is slowed by the RNA proofreading capability of its replication machinery.^[91] For comparison, the viral mutation rate in vivo of SARS-CoV-2 has been found to be lower than that of influenza.^[92]\n

Research into the natural reservoir of the virus that caused the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak has resulted in the discovery of many SARS-like bat coronaviruses, most originating in horseshoe bats. The closest match, at the time of publication in Nature (journal) in February 2022, were viruses BANAL-52 (96.8% resemblance to SARS‑CoV‑2), BANAL-103 and BANAL-236, collected in three different species of bats in Feuang, Laos.^[93]^[94]^[95] An earlier source published in February 2020 identified the virus RaTG13, collected in bats in Mojiang, Yunnan, China to be the closest to SARS‑CoV‑2, with 96.1% resemblance.^[81]^[96] None of the above are its direct ancestor.^[97]\n

Bats are considered the most likely natural reservoir of SARS‑CoV‑2.^[87]^[98] Differences between the bat coronavirus and SARS‑CoV‑2 suggest that humans may have been infected via an intermediate host;^[85] the source of introduction into humans remains unknown.^[99]^[80]\n

After a July 2020 study initially suggested pangolins as an intermediate host of SARS‑CoV‑2-like coronaviruses,^[100]^[101] subsequent studies have not substantiated their contribution to the spillover.^[87] Evidence against this hypothesis includes the fact that pangolin virus samples are too distant to SARS-CoV-2: isolates obtained from pangolins seized in Guangdong were only 92% identical in sequence to the SARS‑CoV‑2 genome (a wide evolutionary gap in genomic terms^[102]). Furthermore, despite similarities in a few critical amino acids,^[103] pangolin virus samples exhibit poor binding to the human ACE2 receptor.^[104]\n

Phylogenetics and taxonomy

Genomic information
Genomic organisation of isolate Wuhan-Hu-1, the earliest sequenced sample of SARS-CoV-2
NCBI ID	GCF_009858895.2
Genome size	29,903 bases
Year of completion	2020
UCSC Genome Browser assembly ID	wuhCor1

SARS‑CoV‑2 belongs to the broad family of viruses known as coronaviruses.^[29] It is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA (+ssRNA) virus, with a single linear RNA segment. Coronaviruses infect humans, other mammals, including livestock and companion animals, and avian species.^[105] Human coronaviruses can cause illnesses ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS, fatality rate ~34%). SARS-CoV-2 is the seventh known coronavirus to infect people, after 229E, NL63, OC43, HKU1, MERS-CoV, and the original SARS-CoV-1.^[106]\n

Like the SARS-related coronavirus implicated in the 2003 SARS outbreak, SARS‑CoV‑2 is a member of the subgenus Sarbecovirus (beta-CoV lineage B).^[107]^[108] Coronaviruses undergo frequent recombination.^[109] The mechanism of recombination in unsegmented RNA viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 is generally by copy-choice replication, in which gene material switches from one RNA template molecule to another during replication.^[110] The SARS-CoV-2 RNA sequence is approximately 30,000 bases in length,^[111] relatively long for a coronavirus—which in turn carry the largest genomes among all RNA families.^[112] Its genome consists nearly entirely of protein-coding sequences, a trait shared with other coronaviruses.^[109]\n

A distinguishing feature of SARS‑CoV‑2 is its incorporation of a polybasic site cleaved by furin,^[103]^[113] which appears to be an important element enhancing its virulence.^[114] It was suggested that the acquisition of the furin-cleavage site in the SARS-CoV-2 S protein was essential for zoonotic transfer to humans.^[115] The furin protease recognises the canonical peptide sequence RX[R/K] R↓X where the cleavage site is indicated by a down arrow and X is any amino acid.^[116]^[117] In SARS-CoV-2 the recognition site is formed by the incorporated 12 codon nucleotide sequence CCT CGG CGG GCA which corresponds to the amino acid sequence P RR A.^[118] This sequence is upstream of an arginine and serine which forms the S1/S2 cleavage site (P RR A R↓S) of the spike protein.^[119] Although such sites are a common naturally-occurring feature of other viruses within the Subfamily Orthocoronavirinae,^[118] it appears in few other viruses from the Beta-CoV genus,^[120] and it is unique among members of its subgenus for such a site.^[103] The closest relatives to SARS-CoV-2, including BANAL-20-52, RaTG13, Pangolin P4L, and SARS-CoV-1, lack the RRAR insertion.^[121] The furin cleavage site PRRAR↓ is highly similar to that of the feline coronavirus, an alphacoronavirus 1 virus.^[122]\n

Viral genetic sequence data can provide critical information about whether viruses separated by time and space are likely to be epidemiologically linked.^[123] With a sufficient number of sequenced genomes, it is possible to reconstruct a phylogenetic tree of the mutation history of a family of viruses. By 12 January 2020, five genomes of SARS‑CoV‑2 had been isolated from Wuhan and reported by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CCDC) and other institutions;^[111]^[124] the number of genomes increased to 42 by 30 January 2020.^[125] A phylogenetic analysis of those samples showed they were \"highly related with at most seven mutations relative to a common ancestor\", implying that the first human infection occurred in November or December 2019.^[125] Examination of the topology of the phylogenetic tree at the start of the pandemic also found high similarities between human isolates.^[126] As of 21 August 2021,^[update] 3,422 SARS‑CoV‑2 genomes, belonging to 19 strains, sampled on all continents except Antarctica were publicly available.^[127]\n

On 11 February 2020, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses announced that according to existing rules that compute hierarchical relationships among coronaviruses based on five conserved sequences of nucleic acids, the differences between what was then called 2019-nCoV and the virus from the 2003 SARS outbreak were insufficient to make them separate viral species. Therefore, they identified 2019-nCoV as a virus of severe acute respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus.^[128]\n

In July 2020, scientists reported that a more infectious SARS‑CoV‑2 variant with spike protein variant G614 has replaced D614 as the dominant form in the pandemic.^[129]^[130]\n

Coronavirus genomes and subgenomes encode six open reading frames (ORFs).^[131] In October 2020, researchers discovered a possible overlapping gene named ORF3d, in the SARS‑CoV‑2 genome. It is unknown if the protein produced by ORF3d has any function, but it provokes a strong immune response. ORF3d has been identified before, in a variant of coronavirus that infects pangolins.^[132]^[133]\n

Phylogenetic tree

A phylogenetic tree based on whole-genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2 and related coronaviruses is:^[134]^[135]\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

SARS‑CoV‑2 related coronavirus\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

(Bat) Rc-o319, 81% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus cornutus, Iwate, Japan^[136]\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n	\n Bat SL-ZXC21, 88% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus pusillus, Zhoushan, Zhejiang^[137]\n \n
\n
\n	\n Bat SL-ZC45, 88% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus pusillus, Zhoushan, Zhejiang^[137]\n \n
\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Pangolin SARSr-CoV-GX, 85.3% to SARS-CoV-2, Manis javanica, smuggled from Southeast Asia^[138]\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Pangolin SARSr-CoV-GD, 90.1% to SARS-CoV-2, Manis javanica, smuggled from Southeast Asia^[139]\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n	\n Bat RshSTT182, 92.6% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus shameli, Steung Treng, Cambodia^[140]\n \n
\n
\n	\n Bat RshSTT200, 92.6% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus shameli, Steung Treng, Cambodia^[140]\n \n
\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n	\n (Bat) RacCS203, 91.5% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus acuminatus, Chachoengsao, Thailand^[135]\n \n
\n
\n	\n (Bat) RmYN02, 93.3% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus malayanus, Mengla, Yunnan^[141]\n \n
\n

(Bat) RpYN06, 94.4% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus pusillus, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan^[134]\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n	\n (Bat) RaTG13, 96.1% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus affinis, Mojiang, Yunnan^[142]\n \n
\n
\n	\n (Bat) BANAL-52, 96.8% to SARS-CoV-2, Rhinolophus malayanus, Vientiane, Laos^[143]\n \n
\n
\n	\n SARS-CoV-2\n \n
\n

SARS-CoV-1, 79% to SARS-CoV-2\n

Variants

Main article: Variants of SARS-CoV-2

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This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2023)

There are many thousands of variants of SARS-CoV-2, which can be grouped into the much larger clades.^[144] Several different clade nomenclatures have been proposed. Nextstrain divides the variants into five clades (19A, 19B, 20A, 20B, and 20C), while GISAID divides them into seven (L, O, V, S, G, GH, and GR).^[145]\n

Several notable variants of SARS-CoV-2 emerged in late 2020. The World Health Organization has currently declared five variants of concern, which are as follows:^[146]\n

Alpha: Lineage B.1.1.7 emerged in the United Kingdom in September 2020, with evidence of increased transmissibility and virulence. Notable mutations include N501Y and P681H.\n
- An E484K mutation in some lineage B.1.1.7 virions has been noted and is also tracked by various public health agencies.
Beta: Lineage B.1.351 emerged in South Africa in May 2020, with evidence of increased transmissibility and changes to antigenicity, with some public health officials raising alarms about its impact on the efficacy of some vaccines. Notable mutations include K417N, E484K and N501Y.
Gamma: Lineage P.1 emerged in Brazil in November 2020, also with evidence of increased transmissibility and virulence, alongside changes to antigenicity. Similar concerns about vaccine efficacy have been raised. Notable mutations also include K417N, E484K and N501Y.
Delta: Lineage B.1.617.2 emerged in India in October 2020. There is also evidence of increased transmissibility and virulence, and changes to antigenicity.
Omicron: Lineage B.1.1.529 emerged around Botswana in November 2021. This lineage demonstrated significantly increased transmissibility and changes to antigenicity, and it subsequently dominated all circulating versions of the virus ever since its emergence.\n
- Omicron variant BA.3.2 was reported to be widespread across Europe and the US in April 2026. The variant has many changes to the spike protein, but had not been found to be more virulent than other Omicron variants, and existing vaccines protected against it.^[147]

Other notable variants include 6 other WHO-designated variants under investigation and Cluster 5, which emerged among mink in Denmark and resulted in a mink euthanasia campaign rendering it virtually extinct.^[148]\n

Virology

Virus structure

Each SARS-CoV-2 virion is 60–140 nanometres in diameter.^[106]^[84] Like other coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 has four structural proteins, known as the S (spike), E (envelope), M (membrane), and N (nucleocapsid) proteins; the N protein holds the RNA genome, and the S, E, and M proteins together create the viral envelope.^[149] Coronavirus S proteins are glycoproteins and also type I membrane proteins (proteins containing a single transmembrane domain oriented on the extracellular side).^[115] They are divided into two functional parts (S1 and S2).^[105] In SARS-CoV-2, the spike protein, which has been imaged at the atomic level using cryogenic electron microscopy,^[150]^[151] is the protein responsible for allowing the virus to attach to and fuse with the membrane of a host cell;^[149] specifically, its S1 subunit catalyses attachment, the S2 subunit fusion.^[152]\n

Genome

As of early 2022, about 7 million SARS-CoV-2 genomes had been sequenced and deposited into public databases and another 800,000 or so were added each month.^[153] By September 2023, the GISAID EpiCoV database contained more than 16 million genome sequences.^[154] \n

SARS-CoV-2 has a linear, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome about 30,000 bases long.^[105] Its genome has a bias against cytosine (C) and guanine (G) nucleotides, like other coronaviruses.^[155] The genome has the highest composition of U (uracil) (32.2%), followed by A (adenine) (29.9%), and a similar composition of G (19.6%) and C (18.3%).^[156] The nucleotide bias arises from the mutation of guanines and cytosines to adenines and uracils, respectively.^[157] The mutation of CG dinucleotides is thought to arise to avoid the zinc finger antiviral protein related defence mechanism of cells,^[158] and to lower the energy to unbind the genome during replication and translation (adenine and uracil base pair via two hydrogen bonds, cytosine and guanine via three).^[157] The depletion of CG dinucleotides in its genome has led the virus to have a noticeable codon usage bias. For instance, arginine's six different codons have a relative synonymous codon usage of AGA (2.67), CGU (1.46), AGG (.81), CGC (.58), CGA (.29), and CGG (.19).^[156] A similar codon usage bias trend is seen in other SARS–related coronaviruses.^[159]\n

Replication cycle

Virus infections start when viral particles bind to host surface cellular receptors.^[160] Protein modelling experiments on the spike protein of the virus soon suggested that SARS‑CoV‑2 has sufficient affinity to the receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on human cells to use them as a mechanism of cell entry.^[161] By 22 January 2020, a group in China working with the full virus genome and a group in the United States using reverse genetics methods independently and experimentally demonstrated that ACE2 could act as the receptor for SARS‑CoV‑2.^[81]^[162]^[163]^[164] Studies have shown that SARS‑CoV‑2 has a higher affinity to human ACE2 than the original SARS virus.^[150]^[165] SARS‑CoV‑2 may also use basigin to assist in cell entry.^[166]\n

Initial spike protein priming by transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) is essential for entry of SARS‑CoV‑2.^[26] The host protein neuropilin 1 (NRP1) may aid the virus in host cell entry using ACE2.^[167] After a SARS‑CoV‑2 virion attaches to a target cell, the cell's TMPRSS2 cuts open the spike protein of the virus, exposing a fusion peptide in the S2 subunit, and the host receptor ACE2.^[152] After fusion, an endosome forms around the virion, separating it from the rest of the host cell. The virion escapes when the pH of the endosome drops or when cathepsin, a host cysteine protease, cleaves it.^[152] The virion then releases RNA into the cell and forces the cell to produce and disseminate copies of the virus, which infect more cells.^[168]\n

SARS‑CoV‑2 produces at least three virulence factors that promote shedding of new virions from host cells and inhibit immune response.^[149] Whether they include downregulation of ACE2, as seen in similar coronaviruses, remains under investigation (as of May 2020).^[169]\n

$\"SARS-CoV-2$

Digitally colourised scanning electron micrographs of SARS-CoV-2 virions (yellow) emerging from human cells cultured in a laboratory

Treatment and drug development

Main article: Treatment and management of COVID-19

Very few drugs are known to effectively inhibit SARS‑CoV‑2. Masitinib was found to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 main protease, showing a greater than 200-fold reduction in viral titres in the lungs and nose of mice, however it is not approved for the treatment of COVID-19 in humans.^[170]^{[needs update]} In December 2021, the United States granted emergency use authorisation to Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir for the treatment of the virus;^[171] the European Union, United Kingdom, and Canada followed suit with full authorisation soon after.^[172]^[173]^[174] One study found that Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir reduced the risk of hospitalisation and death by 88%.^[175]\n

COVID Moonshot is an international collaborative open-science project started in March 2020 with the goal of developing an un-patented oral antiviral drug for treatment of SARS-CoV-2.^[176]\n

Epidemiology

Main article: COVID-19 pandemic

Retrospective tests collected within the Chinese surveillance system revealed no clear indication of substantial unrecognised circulation of SARS‑CoV‑2 in Wuhan during the latter part of 2019.^[87]\n

A meta-analysis from November 2020 estimated the basic reproduction number ( ${\\displaystyle R_{0}}$ ) of the wildtype virus to be between 2.39 and 3.44.^[22] This means each infection from the virus is expected to result in 2.39 to 3.44 new infections when no members of the community are immune and no preventive measures are taken. The reproduction number may be higher in densely populated conditions such as those found on cruise ships.^[177] Human behaviour affects the R0 value and hence estimates of R0 differ between different countries, cultures, and social norms. For instance, one study found relatively low R0 (~3.5) in Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands, while Spain and the US had significantly higher R0 values (5.9 to 6.4, respectively).^[178] The R0 values for later variants were significantly higher, with the Omicron lineage exhibiting the highest R0 by far. The Omicron BA.1 variant had an estimated R0 of around ~9.5,^[179] while the Omicron BA.4 and BA.5 subvariants and later lineages were estimated by some studies to have an R0 reaching or even exceeding 20, which would give them an R0 exceeding that of the Measles virus.^[180]^[181]\n

\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Reproductive value R0 of SARS-CoV-2 variants\n
Variant\n	R0\n	Source\n
Reference/ancestral strain\n	~2.9\n	^[182]\n
Alpha (B.1.1.7)\n	3.8–5\n	^[183]^[184]^[185]\n
Delta (B.1.617.2)\n	~5.1 (3–8)\n	^[186]\n
Omicron BA.1 (B.1.1.529.1)\n	~9.5\n	^[179]\n
Omicron Post-BA.4/5 (B.1.1.529.4/5)\n	~20\n	^[180]^[181]\n

In the early months of the pandemic, there were 96,000 confirmed cases of infection in mainland China.^[187] While the proportion of infections that result in confirmed cases or progress to diagnosable disease was unclear at the time,^[188] one mathematical model estimated that 75,815 people were infected on 25 January 2020 in Wuhan alone, at a time when the number of confirmed cases worldwide was only 2,015.^[189] Before 24 February 2020, over 95% of all deaths from COVID-19 worldwide had occurred in Hubei province, where Wuhan is located.^[190]^[191] As of 10 March 2023, the percentage had decreased to 0.047%.^[187]\n

As of 10 March 2023, there were 676,609,955 total confirmed cases of SARS‑CoV‑2 infection.^[187] The total number of deaths attributed to the virus was 6,881,955.^[187]\n

References

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7095448 (refs: 3, 128)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7592455 (refs: 19, 105)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7657547 (refs: 22, 183)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7095418 (refs: 81, 142)
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Natur.604..330T (refs: 121, 143)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7211627 (refs: 137, 141)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7095430 (refs: 163, 164)
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^ Kandeel M, Ibrahim A, Fayez M, Al-Nazawi M (June 2020). \"From SARS and MERS CoVs to SARS-CoV-2: Moving toward more biased codon usage in viral structural and nonstructural genes\". Journal of Medical Virology. 92 (6): 660–666. doi:10.1002/jmv.25754. PMC 7228358. PMID 32159237.\n
^ ^a ^b Hou W (September 2020). \"Characterization of codon usage pattern in SARS-CoV-2\". Virology Journal. 17 (1) 138. doi:10.1186/s12985-020-01395-x. PMC 7487440. PMID 32928234.\n
^ ^a ^b Wang Y, Mao JM, Wang GD, Luo ZP, Yang L, Yao Q, Chen KP (July 2020). \"Human SARS-CoV-2 has evolved to reduce CG dinucleotide in its open reading frames\". Scientific Reports. 10 (1) 12331. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1012331W. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-69342-y. PMC 7378049. PMID 32704018.\n
^ Rice AM, Castillo Morales A, Ho AT, Mordstein C, Mühlhausen S, Watson S, Cano L, Young B, Kudla G, Hurst LD (January 2021). \"Evidence for Strong Mutation Bias toward, and Selection against, U Content in SARS-CoV-2: Implications for Vaccine Design\". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 38 (1): 67–83. doi:10.1093/molbev/msaa188. PMC 7454790. PMID 32687176.\n
^ Gu H, Chu DK, Peiris M, Poon LL (January 2020). \"Multivariate analyses of codon usage of SARS-CoV-2 and other betacoronaviruses\". Virus Evolution. 6 (1) veaa032. doi:10.1093/ve/veaa032. PMC 7223271. PMID 32431949.\n
^ Wang Q, Zhang Y, Wu L, Niu S, Song C, Zhang Z, Lu G, Qiao C, Hu Y, Yuen KY, Wang Q, Zhou H, Yan J, Qi J (May 2020). \"Structural and Functional Basis of SARS-CoV-2 Entry by Using Human ACE2\". Cell. 181 (4): 894–904.e9. Bibcode:2020Cell..181..894W. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.03.045. PMC 7144619. PMID 32275855.\n
^ Xu X, Chen P, Wang J, Feng J, Zhou H, Li X, Zhong W, Hao P (March 2020). \"Evolution of the novel coronavirus from the ongoing Wuhan outbreak and modeling of its spike protein for risk of human transmission\". Science China Life Sciences. 63 (3): 457–460. doi:10.1007/s11427-020-1637-5. PMC 7089049. PMID 32009228.\n
^ Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V (April 2020). \"Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses\". Nature Microbiology. 5 (4): 562–569. doi:10.1038/s41564-020-0688-y. PMC 7095430. PMID 32094589.\n
^ Letko M, Marzi A, Munster V (April 2020). \"Functional assessment of cell entry and receptor usage for SARS-CoV-2 and other lineage B betacoronaviruses\". Nature Microbiology. 5 (4): 562–569. doi:10.1038/s41564-020-0688-y. PMC 7095430. PMID 32094589.\n
^ El Sahly HM (6 February 2020). \"Genomic Characterization of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus\". The New England Journal of Medicine. Archived from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.\n
^ \"Novel coronavirus structure reveals targets for vaccines and treatments\". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2 March 2020. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 3 April 2020.\n
^ Wang K, Chen W, Zhang Z, Deng Y, Lian JQ, Du P, Wei D, Zhang Y, Sun XX, Gong L, Yang X, He L, Zhang L, Yang Z, Geng JJ, Chen R, Zhang H, Wang B, Zhu YM, Nan G, Jiang JL, Li L, Wu J, Lin P, Huang W, Xie L, Zheng ZH, Zhang K, Miao JL, Cui HY, Huang M, Zhang J, Fu L, Yang XM, Zhao Z, Sun S, Gu H, Wang Z, Wang CF, Lu Y, Liu YY, Wang QY, Bian H, Zhu P, Chen ZN (December 2020). \"CD147-spike protein is a novel route for SARS-CoV-2 infection to host cells\". Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy. 5 (1) 283. bioRxiv 10.1101/2020.03.14.988345. doi:10.1038/s41392-020-00426-x. PMC 7714896. PMID 33277466.\n
^ Zamorano Cuervo N, Grandvaux N (November 2020). \"ACE2: Evidence of role as entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2 and implications in comorbidities\". eLife. 9 e61390. doi:10.7554/eLife.61390. PMC 7652413. PMID 33164751.\n
^ \"Anatomy of a Killer: Understanding SARS-CoV-2 and the drugs that might lessen its power\". The Economist. 12 March 2020. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.\n
^ Beeching NJ, Fletcher TE, Fowler R (22 May 2020). \"BMJ Best Practice: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)\" (PDF). BMJ. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2020. Retrieved 25 May 2020.\n
^ Drayman N, DeMarco JK, Jones KA, Azizi SA, Froggatt HM, Tan K, Maltseva NI, Chen S, Nicolaescu V, Dvorkin S, Furlong K, Kathayat RS, Firpo MR, Mastrodomenico V, Bruce EA, Schmidt MM, Jedrzejczak R, Muñoz-Alía MÁ, Schuster B, Nair V, Han KY, O'Brien A, Tomatsidou A, Meyer B, Vignuzzi M, Missiakas D, Botten JW, Brooke CB, Lee H, Baker SC, Mounce BC, Heaton NS, Severson WE, Palmer KE, Dickinson BC, Joachimiak A, Randall G, Tay S (August 2021). \"Masitinib is a broad coronavirus 3CL inhibitor that blocks replication of SARS-CoV-2\". Science. 373 (6557): 931–936. Bibcode:2021Sci...373..931D. doi:10.1126/science.abg5827. PMC 8809056. PMID 34285133.\n
^ Fact sheet for healthcare providers: Emergency Use Authorization for Paxlovid (PDF) (Technical report). Pfizer. 22 December 2021. LAB-1492-0.8. Archived from the original on 23 December 2021.\n
^ \"Paxlovid EPAR\". European Medicines Agency (EMA). 24 January 2022. Retrieved 3 February 2022. Text was copied from this source which is copyright European Medicines Agency. Reproduction is authorized provided the source is acknowledged.\n
^ \"Oral COVID-19 antiviral, Paxlovid, approved by UK regulator\" (Press release). Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. 31 December 2021.\n
^ \"Health Canada authorizes Paxlovid for patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 at high risk of developing serious disease\". Health Canada (Press release). 17 January 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.\n
^ \"FDA Authorizes First Oral Antiviral for Treatment of COVID-19\". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Press release). 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021. $\"Public$ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.\n
^ Whipple T (23 October 2021). \"Moonshot is the spanner in the Covid-19 works the country needs\". The Times. Retrieved 5 November 2021.\n
^ Rocklöv J, Sjödin H, Wilder-Smith A (May 2020). \"COVID-19 outbreak on the Diamond Princess cruise ship: estimating the epidemic potential and effectiveness of public health countermeasures\". Journal of Travel Medicine. 27 (3) taaa030. doi:10.1093/jtm/taaa030. PMC 7107563. PMID 32109273.\n
^ Ke R, Romero-Severson E, Sanche S, Hengartner N (May 2021). \"Estimating the reproductive number R₀ of SARS-CoV-2 in the United States and eight European countries and implications for vaccination\". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 517 110621. Bibcode:2021JThBi.51710621K. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110621. PMC 7880839. PMID 33587929.\n
^ ^a ^b Liu Y, Rocklöv J (31 May 2022). \"The effective reproductive number of the Omicron variant of SARS-CoV-2 is several times relative to Delta\". Journal of Travel Medicine. 29 (3). Table 1. doi:10.1093/jtm/taac037. PMC 8992231. PMID 35262737.\n
^ ^a ^b Zhang Z (2023). \"Omicron's intrinsic gene-gene interactions jumped away from earlier SARS-CoV-2 variants and gene homologs between humans and animals\". Advances in Biomarker Sciences and Technology. 5: 105–123. doi:10.1016/j.abst.2023.09.002.\n
^ ^a ^b Erin Prater (9 July 2022). \"Move over, measles: Dominant Omicron subvariants BA.4 and BA.5 could be the most infectious viruses known to man\". Fortune. Archived from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 26 November 2025.\n
^ Billah A, Miah M, Khan N (11 November 2020). \"Reproductive number of coronavirus: A systematic review and meta-analysis based on global level evidence\". PLOS ONE. 15 (11) e0242128. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1542128B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0242128. PMC 7657547. PMID 33175914.\n
^ Andre M, Lau LS, Pokharel MD, Ramelow J, Owens F, Souchak J, Akkaoui J, Ales E, Brown H, Shil R, Nazaire V, Manevski M, Paul NP, Esteban-Lopez M, Ceyhan Y, El-Hage N (21 September 2023). \"From Alpha to Omicron: How Different Variants of Concern of the SARS-Coronavirus-2 Impacted the World\". Biology. 12 (9): 1267. doi:10.3390/biology12091267. PMC 10525159. PMID 37759666.\n
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^ Davies NG, Abbott S, Barnard RC, Jarvis CI, Kucharski AJ, Munday JD, Pearson CA, Russell TW, Tully DC, Washburne AD, Wenseleers T, Gimma A, Waites W, Wong KL, van Zandvoort K, Silverman JD, Diaz-Ordaz K, Keogh R, Eggo RM, Funk S, Jit M, Atkins KE, Edmunds WJ, Atkins KE, Edmunds WJ (9 April 2021). \"Estimated transmissibility and impact of SARS-CoV-2 lineage B.1.1.7 in England\". Science. 372 (6538) eabg3055. Bibcode:2021Sci...372g3055D. doi:10.1126/science.abg3055. PMC 8128288. PMID 33658326.\n
^ Liu Y, Rocklöv J (October 2021). \"The reproductive number of the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 is far higher compared to the ancestral SARS-CoV-2 virus\". Journal of Travel Medicine. 28 (7) taab124. doi:10.1093/jtm/taab124. PMC 8436367. PMID 34369565.\n
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d \"COVID-19 Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU)\". ArcGIS. Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 10 March 2023.\n
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^ Paulinus A (25 February 2020). \"Coronavirus: China to repay Africa in safeguarding public health\". The Sun. Archived from the original on 9 March 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.\n

External links

$\"logo\"$

Scholia has a profile for SARS-CoV-2 (Q82069695).

\"Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)\". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 11 February 2020.
\"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) Pandemic\". World Health Organization (WHO).
\"SARS-CoV-2 (Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) Sequences\". National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
\"COVID-19 Resource Centre\". The Lancet.
\"Coronavirus (Covid-19)\". The New England Journal of Medicine.
\"Covid-19: Novel Coronavirus Outbreak\". Wiley. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 13 February 2020.
\"SARS-CoV-2\". Virus Pathogen Database and Analysis Resource.
\"SARS-CoV-2 related protein structures\". Protein Data Bank.

COVID-19 pandemic

COVID-19 (disease)
SARS-CoV-2 (virus)

Timeline

Pre-pandemic	\n Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) \n Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) \n Crimson Contagion \n Disease X \n Exercise Cygnus \n 2019\n responses \n
2020	\n January\n responses \n February\n responses \n March\n responses \n April\n responses \n May\n responses \n June\n responses \n July\n responses \n August\n responses \n September\n responses \n October\n responses \n November\n responses \n December\n responses \n
2021	\n January\n responses \n February\n responses \n March\n responses \n April\n responses \n May\n responses \n June\n responses \n July\n responses \n August\n responses \n September\n responses \n October\n responses \n November\n responses \n December\n responses \n
2022	\n January\n responses \n February\n responses \n March\n responses \n April\n responses \n May\n responses \n June\n responses \n July\n responses \n August\n responses \n September\n responses \n October\n responses \n November \n December \n
2023	\n Timeline \n

Locations

Africa

(national
responses)

Northern	\n Algeria \n Canary Islands \n Ceuta \n Egypt \n Libya \n Mauritania \n Melilla \n Morocco \n Sudan \n Tunisia \n Western Sahara\n Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic \n
Eastern	\n Burundi \n Comoros \n Djibouti \n Eritrea \n Ethiopia \n Kenya \n Madagascar \n Mauritius \n Mayotte \n Réunion \n Rwanda \n Seychelles \n Somalia\n Puntland \n Somaliland \n South Sudan \n Tanzania \n Uganda \n
Southern	\n Angola \n Botswana \n Eswatini \n Lesotho \n Malawi \n Mozambique \n Namibia \n South Africa\n list of deaths \n Zambia \n Zimbabwe \n
Central	\n Cameroon \n Central African Republic \n Chad \n Democratic Republic of the Congo \n Republic of the Congo \n Gabon \n São Tomé and Príncipe \n
Western	\n Benin \n Burkina Faso \n Cape Verde \n Equatorial Guinea \n Gambia \n Ghana\n timeline\n 2020\n March–July \n August–December \n 2021 \n government response \n impact\n education \n Guinea \n Guinea-Bissau \n Ivory Coast \n Liberia \n Mali \n Niger \n Nigeria\n government response \n Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha \n Senegal \n Sierra Leone \n Togo \n

Asia

Central/North

Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Russia\n
- timeline\n
  - January–June
  - July–December
- impact\n
  - economic
  - social
  - political
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan

East

\n Hong Kong \n Japan\n timeline \n Tokyo\n 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics \n North Korea \n South Korea \n Macau \n Mongolia \n Taiwan\n respirator diplomacy \n
Mainland China	\n lockdown\n detail \n statistics \n vaccination \n Beijing\n 2022 Winter Olympics and Paralympics \n Heilongjiang \n Henan \n Hubei \n Inner Mongolia \n Liaoning \n Shanghai\n 2022 outbreak \n Sichuan \n Tibet \n Xinjiang \n

South

India

economic impact
lockdown
migrant workers' crisis
statistics
timeline\n
- 2020\n
  - January–May
  - June–December
- 2021
union government response\n
- PM CARES Fund
state government responses
vaccination\n
- Vaccine Maitri

By location

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andhra Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh
Chhattisgarh
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu
Delhi\n
- Tablighi Jamaat hotspot
Goa
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu and Kashmir
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala\n
- timeline
Ladakh
Lakshadweep
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Mizoram
Nagaland
Odisha
Puducherry
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Telangana
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttarakhand
West Bengal

Southeast

\n Brunei \n Cambodia \n Indonesia\n timeline\n 2021 \n social restrictions \n Community Activities Restrictions Enforcement \n Laos \n Myanmar \n Singapore\n timeline\n 2020 \n 2021 \n 2022 \n \"circuit breaker\" response \n vaccination \n statistics \n Thailand\n timeline \n vaccination \n statistics \n Timor-Leste \n Vietnam\n timeline \n government response \n
Malaysia	\n impact\n social \n economic \n political \n Aid and relief efforts \n movement control order \n Tablighi Jamaat COVID-19 hotspot \n timeline\n 2020 \n 2021 \n 2022 \n 2023 \n statistics \n Johor \n Kuala Lumpur \n Sabah \n Sarawak \n Selangor \n
Philippines	\n timeline\n 2020 \n 2021 \n 2022 \n government response\n community quarantines\n Luzon \n evacuations \n vaccination \n Bangsamoro \n Bicol Region \n Cagayan Valley \n Calabarzon \n Caraga \n Central Luzon \n Central Visayas \n Cordillera \n Davao Region \n Eastern Visayas \n Ilocos Region \n Metro Manila \n Mimaropa \n Northern Mindanao \n Soccsksargen \n Western Visayas \n Zamboanga Peninsula \n Overseas Filipinos \n

West

Europe

United Kingdom

history
timeline\n
- January–June 2020
- July–December 2020
- January–June 2021
- July–December 2021
- January–June 2022
- July–December 2022
- 2023
responses\n
- government response
response\n
- Operation Rescript
- contracts
impact\n
- social
- economic
- education

By location

England\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020\n
    - January–June
    - July–December
  - 2021
  - 2022
- London
- local lockdown regulations
- first tier regulations
Northern Ireland\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020
  - 2021
  - 2022
Scotland\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020
  - 2021
  - 2022
Wales\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020
  - 2021
  - 2022
Crown Dependencies\n
- Isle of Man
- Jersey
- Guernsey
Overseas territories\n

Eastern

Belarus\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020
  - 2021
  - 2022
Kazakhstan
Moldova\n
- Gagauzia
- Transnistria
Russia\n
- timeline\n
  - January–June 2020
  - July–December 2020
- government responses
- political impact
Turkey\n
- timeline
Ukraine\n
- Crimea
- Sevastopol

Western Balkans

European Union

Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia\n
- timeline
Cyprus\n
- Northern Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark\n
- Faroe Islands
Estonia
Finland\n
- Åland
France\n
- Guadeloupe
- French Guiana
- Réunion
- Martinique
- Mayotte
- Normandy
- Saint Martin
Germany\n
- North Rhine-Westphalia
- government response
Greece
Hungary
Ireland\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020
  - 2021
  - 2022
- economic impact
- social impact
- vaccination
Italy\n
- lockdowns
- timeline
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands\n
- government response
Poland
Portugal
Romania\n
- timeline
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain\n
- timeline
- Asturias
- Canary Islands
- Ceuta
- Community of Madrid
- Melilla
Sweden\n
- government response\n
  - Operation Gloria

EFTA countries

Microstates

North
America

Atlantic

Canada

timeline
economic impact\n
- federal aid
vaccination
military response
Atlantic Bubble
Alberta\n
- timeline
British Columbia
Manitoba
New Brunswick
Newfoundland and Labrador
Northwest Territories
Nova Scotia
Nunavut
Ontario\n
- timeline\n
  - 2020
  - 2021
  - 2022
- Ottawa
- Peel Region
- Toronto
- York Region
- Provincial government response
- Vaccination
Prince Edward Island
Quebec\n
- Montreal\n
  - boroughs
Saskatchewan\n
- timeline
Yukon

Caribbean

Countries

British Overseas Territories

\n Aruba \n Curaçao \n Sint Maarten \n
Caribbean Netherlands	\n Bonaire \n Saba \n Sint Eustatius \n

French West Indies

US insular areas

Central America

United States

\n Trump administration communication \n timeline\n 2020 \n 2021 \n social impact \n economic impact \n 2021 hospital crisis \n
responses	\n federal government \n state and local governments\n California government response \n New York government response \n Texas government response \n Eastern States Multi-state Council \n Midwest Governors Regional Pact \n Western States Pact \n
By location	\n Alabama \n Alaska \n American Samoa \n Arizona\n Navajo Nation \n Arkansas \n California\n timeline \n S.F. Bay Area \n Colorado \n Connecticut \n Delaware \n Florida \n Georgia \n Guam \n Hawaii \n Idaho \n Illinois \n Indiana \n Iowa \n Kansas \n Kentucky \n Louisiana \n Maine \n Maryland\n timeline \n Massachusetts\n timeline \n Boston\n timeline \n Michigan \n Minnesota \n Mississippi \n Missouri \n Montana \n Nebraska \n Nevada\n timeline \n New Hampshire \n New Jersey \n New Mexico \n New York\n New York City\n timeline \n North Carolina \n North Dakota \n Northern Mariana Islands \n Ohio\n Columbus \n Oklahoma \n Oregon\n Portland \n Pennsylvania\n Philadelphia \n Puerto Rico \n Rhode Island \n South Carolina \n South Dakota \n Tennessee \n Texas\n timeline \n Austin \n U.S. Virgin Islands \n Utah \n Vermont \n Virginia \n Washington \n Washington, D.C.\n White House \n West Virginia \n Wisconsin \n Wyoming \n

Oceania

\n American Samoa \n Cook Islands \n Easter Island \n Federated States of Micronesia \n Fiji \n French Polynesia \n Guam \n Hawaii \n Kiribati \n Marshall Islands \n Nauru \n New Caledonia \n Niue \n Northern Mariana Islands \n Palau \n Papua New Guinea\n Bougainville \n Pitcairn Islands \n Samoa \n Solomon Islands \n Tokelau \n Tonga \n Tuvalu \n Vanuatu \n Wallis and Futuna \n
Australia	\n timeline\n 2020 \n 2021\n January–June \n July–December \n 2022 \n Australian Capital Territory \n Christmas Island \n Cocos (Keeling) Islands \n New South Wales \n Norfolk Island \n Northern Territory \n Queensland \n South Australia \n Tasmania \n Victoria \n Western Australia \n
New Zealand	\n timeline\n 2020 \n 2021 \n 2022 \n 2023 \n economic impact \n government response\n Alert levels \n Traffic light system \n social impact \n managed isolation \n

South
America

Others

Antarctica
Cruise ships\n
- Diamond Princess
- Grand Princess
Naval ships\n
- Charles de Gaulle
- USS Theodore Roosevelt

Impact

Culture and
entertainment

Arts and
cultural heritage

References in popular culture
Cinema\n
- films affected
Corona-chan
Disney
Fashion industry
Music industry
Performing arts
Television\n
- U.S.\n
  - U.S. sports
  - programs affected
Video games

Education

\n Female education \n Homeschooling \n
By country	\n Ghana \n Ireland \n United Kingdom\n exam grading controversy \n United States \n

Sports

\n Bio-secure bubble \n
By country	\n Ireland \n Philippines \n
By sport	\n Association football \n Baseball \n Basketball\n NBA \n Combat sports \n Cricket \n Disc golf \n Gaelic games \n Gridirion football (NCAAF, NFL, and CFL) \n Ice hockey \n Motorsport \n Rugby league \n

Society
and rights

Social impact	\n Social media \n Stigma \n Children\n foster care in the U.S. \n Pandemic baking \n
Labor	\n Healthcare workers \n Indian migrant workers \n Great Resignation \n Strikes \n
Human rights	\n Argentina \n Myanmar \n
Legal	\n Abortion in the U.S. \n Crime \n Domestic violence \n Prisons \n U.S. immigration detention \n
Minority	\n Gender \n LGBT community \n African communities \n Indian migrant workers \n Disability community \n Native American communities \n Xenophobia and racism \n
Religion	\n Catholic Church \n Hajj \n

Economic

\n Charitable activity \n COVID-19 scams \n Travel restrictions \n
By country	\n Canada \n India \n Ireland\n COVID-19 Pandemic Unemployment Payment \n Malaysia \n New Zealand \n Russia \n U.K. \n U.S. \n
By industry	\n Aviation\n Airlines \n Cannabis industry \n Food industry\n meat industry in Canada \n meat industry in the U.S. \n restaurant industry in the U.S. \n Hospitals\n ICU capacity \n Long-term care facilities \n Mink farming \n Public transport \n Retail \n Tourism \n
Supply and trade	\n Shortages \n Chip supply \n Energy \n Global supply chain \n Oil price war \n Food security \n
Financial markets	\n Global stock market crash \n COVID-19 recession \n Inflation \n

Information

\n Journalism \n Media coverage \n Wikipedia's response \n
Misinformation	\n Governments\n China \n United States \n By country\n Canada \n Philippines \n Ivermectin \n Plandemic \n

Politics

\n National responses \n Legislation \n List of political officials who have tested positive \n European Union \n
Political impact	\n Ireland \n Malaysia \n Russia \n
Protests	\n Abkhazia \n Argentina \n Australia\n Convoy to Canberra \n Azerbaijan \n Belarus \n Belgium \n Brazil\n 2020 protests \n 2021 protests \n Bulgaria \n Canada\n convoy protest \n Chile \n China\n Beijing Sitong Bridge protest \n healthcare reform protests \n Colombia\n 2021 protests \n 2022 protests \n Cuba\n Yellow vests protests \n labor protests \n French West Indies social unrest \n convoy protest \n Germany\n Idar-Oberstein shooting \n Greece \n Israel\n protests against Benjamin Netanyahu \n Italy \n Mongolia \n Netherlands\n curfew riots \n New Zealand\n Wellington protest \n Paraguay \n Serbia \n Tunisia \n United Kingdom \n United States\n Open the States \n
International relations	\n Aid \n Italy \n Moldovan–Romanian collaboration \n Respirator diplomacy of Taiwan \n Vaccine diplomacy \n

Language

Others

Health issues

Medical topics

Transmission\n
- Symptoms
Cancer
Endemic COVID-19
Skin manifestations
Long COVID
Mental health\n
- neurological, psychological and other mental health outcomes
Pregnancy
Non-COVID-19–related health issues
Shortages
Rehabilitation
Unproven medical methods

Testing and
epidemiology

Datasets
Death rates by country
Disease testing\n
investigations into the origins\n
- lab leak theory
Rapid antigen test
Software
Surveillance
Undercounting COVID-19 deaths

Apps

Aarogya Setu
BlueTrace
careFIJI
Coronavirus Australia
Corona-Warn-App
COVID-19 Contact-Confirming Application
COVID Alert (Canada)
COVIDSafe
COVID Tracker Ireland
Covid Watch
Decentralized Privacy-Preserving Proximity Tracing
Exposure Notification
Health Code
Healthy Together
Immuni
Koronavilkku
LeaveHomeSafe
MySejahtera
NHS COVID-19
NZ COVID Tracer
NZ Pass Verifier
PathCheck
PeduliLindungi
SafeEntry
SafePass
StaySafe.ph
SwissCovid
TCN Protocol
Test, Trace, Protect
Thai Chana
TousAntiCovid
TraceTogether
Valtrace
Zoe Health Study

Prevention

Air purifier (Corsi–Rosenthal Box)
Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine
Evacuations
Face masks\n
- Anti-mask sentiment
- United States
Flattening the curve
Great Barrington Declaration
International aid
Lockdowns
Public health mitigation
Safe Hands Challenge
Social distancing
Workplace hazard controls
Zero-COVID

Vaccines

Topics

Authorizations
Clinical research
Deployment
Development
EU Certificate
Misinformation and hesitancy\n
- Deaths of anti-vaccine advocates
- US
Operation Warp Speed (U.S.)
Post-vaccination complications
Vaccine card
Vaccine passports

Authorized

DNA	\n ZyCoV-D \n
Inactivated	\n Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences \n CoronaVac \n Covaxin \n COVIran Barekat \n CoviVac (Russia) \n FAKHRAVAC \n Minhai \n QazCovid-in \n Sinopharm BIBP \n Sinopharm WIBP \n Turkovac \n Valneva \n
mRNA	\n Moderna \n Pfizer–BioNTech \n
Subunit	\n Abdala \n Corbevax (Bio E COVID-19) \n COVAX-19 \n EpiVacCorona \n IndoVac \n MVC \n Noora \n Novavax \n Razi Cov Pars \n Sinopharm CNBG \n Soberana 02 \n Soberana Plus \n ZF2001 (Zifivax) \n
Viral vector	\n Convidecia \n Janssen \n Oxford–AstraZeneca \n Sputnik V \n Sputnik Light \n
Virus-like particles	\n CoVLP \n

In trials

Attenuated	\n COVI-VAC (United States) \n
DNA	\n AG0302-COVID‑19 \n GX-19 \n Inovio \n
Inactivated	\n KD-414 \n NDV-HXP-S \n
RNA	\n ARCT-021 \n ARCT-154 \n Bangavax \n CureVac (terminated) \n HGC019 \n mRNA-1283 \n PTX-COVID19-B \n Sanofi–Translate Bio (terminated) \n Stemirna COVID-19 vaccine \n Walvax \n
Subunit	\n 202-CoV \n AKS-452 \n EuCorVac-19 \n IVX-411 \n Nanocovax \n ReCOV \n Sanofi–GSK \n S-268019 \n SCB-2019 \n SCTV01C \n Skycovione \n UB-612 \n V-01 \n V451 (terminated) \n Vabiotech \n West China Hospital \n Zhongyianke Biotech–Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech \n
Viral vector	\n AdCLD-CoV19 \n BriLife \n COH04S1 \n DelNS1-2019-nCoV-RBD-OPT \n GRAd-COV2 \n ImmunityBio \n iNCOVACC \n INNA-051 \n NDV-HXP-S \n Vaxart COVID-19 vaccine \n
Virus-like particles	\n ABNCoV2 \n LYB001 \n MigVax-101 \n VBI-2902 \n

Deployment
by location

Africa	\n Algeria \n Angola \n Botswana \n Burkina Faso \n Burundi \n Cameroon \n Cape Verde \n Cameroon \n Chad \n Comoros \n Democratic Republic of the Congo \n Djibouti \n Egypt \n Equatorial Guinea \n Eswatini \n Ghana \n Morocco \n Nigeria \n Senegal \n South Africa \n Zimbabwe \n
Asia	\n Bangladesh \n Bhutan \n Mainland China \n India \n Indonesia \n Iran \n Israel \n Japan \n Kazakhstan \n Malaysia \n Nepal \n Philippines \n Russia \n Singapore \n South Korea \n Sri Lanka \n Taiwan \n Thailand \n Turkey \n United Arab Emirates \n Vietnam \n
Europe	\n Albania \n Bosnia and Herzegovina \n Bulgaria \n Croatia \n Denmark \n France \n Germany \n Greece \n Hungary \n Iceland \n Ireland \n Italy \n Moldova \n Norway \n Portugal \n Romania \n Russia \n Spain \n Sweden \n Switzerland \n Ukraine \n United Kingdom \n
North America	\n Canada\n Ontario \n Quebec \n Haiti \n Mexico \n United States\n mandates \n
Oceania	\n Australia \n Fiji \n New Zealand \n
South America	\n Argentina \n Brazil \n Colombia \n Peru \n
Others

Treatment

\n Drug development \n Drug repurposing research\n Baricitinib \n PANORAMIC trial (UK) \n RECOVERY Trial (UK) \n Solidarity trial (WHO) \n
Monoclonal antibodies	\n Bamlanivimab/etesevimab\n Bamlanivimab \n Etesevimab \n Bebtelovimab \n Casirivimab/imdevimab \n Regdanvimab \n Sarilumab \n Sotrovimab \n Tixagevimab/cilgavimab \n Tocilizumab \n
Small molecule antivirals	\n Broad-spectrum\n Ensitrelvir \n Molnupiravir \n Co-packaged\n Nirmatrelvir \n ritonavir \n

Variants

Specific	\n Alpha \n Beta \n Gamma \n Delta \n Epsilon \n Zeta \n Eta \n Theta \n Iota \n Kappa \n Lambda \n Mu \n Omicron\n timeline \n
General	\n Cluster 5 \n Lineage B.1.617 \n Variant of concern \n

Institutions

Hospitals and
medical clinics

Mainland China

Others

Hospital ships
Garran Surge Centre (Australia)
Hospital El Salvador
Kemayoran Athletes Village (Indonesia)
Pyongyang General Hospital (North Korea)
Malaysia Agro Exposition Park Serdang (Malaysia)
Mega Ligtas COVID Centers (Philippines)
Kandakadu Treatment and Rehabilitation Centre (Sri Lanka)
Sancaktepe Prof. Dr. Feriha Öz Emergency Hospital (Turkey)
Yeşilköy Prof. Dr. Murat Dilmener Emergency Hospital (Turkey)
COVID-19 hospitals in the United Kingdom\n
- - Birmingham
  - London
  - North East
  - North West
  - Yorkshire and the Humber
- NHS Louisa Jordan (Scotland)
- Dragon's Heart Hospital (Wales)

Organizations

\n National Cabinet (Australia) \n ScienceUpFirst (Canada) \n Wuhan Institute of Virology (China) \n Independent SAGE (United Kingdom) \n
Health institutes	\n Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (African Union) \n Ghana Infectious Disease Centre (Ghana) \n Department of Health (Hong Kong) \n Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (South Korea) \n National Institute for Communicable Diseases (South Africa) \n Taiwan Centers for Disease Control (Taiwan) \n
Pandemic institutes	\n National COVID-19 Commission Advisory Board (Australia) \n COVID-19 Immunity Task Force (Canada) \n COVID-19 Supply Council (Canada) \n PREPARE (European Union) \n National Expert Group on Vaccine Administration for COVID-19 (India) \n COVID-19 Response Acceleration Task Force (Indonesia) \n National Public Health Emergency Team (Ireland) \n Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting (Japan) \n Crisis Preparedness and Response Centre (Malaysia) \n Defeat COVID-19 Ad Hoc Committee (Philippines) \n Inter-Agency Task Force for the Management of Emerging Infectious Diseases (Philippines) \n Central Epidemic Command Center (Taiwan) \n Coronavirus Scientific Advisory Board (Turkey) \n COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium (United Kingdom) \n Imperial College COVID-19 Response Team (United Kingdom) \n Joint Biosecurity Centre (United Kingdom) \n Vaccine Taskforce (United Kingdom) \n COVID-19 Advisory Board (United States) \n Great American Economic Revival Industry Groups (United States) \n White House Coronavirus Task Force (United States) \n White House COVID-19 Response Team (United States) \n GACH (Uruguay) \n
Relief funds	\n PM CARES Fund (India) \n Artist Relief (United States) \n

People

Medical
professionals

Researchers

Officials

WHO

Tedros Adhanom (Director-General of the WHO)
Bruce Aylward (Team lead of WHO-China COVID-19 mission)
Maria Van Kerkhove (Technical Lead for COVID-19 response)
Michael J. Ryan (Executive Director of the WHO Health Emergencies Programme)

By location

Frank Atherton (Wales)
Ashley Bloomfield (New Zealand)
Catherine Calderwood (Scotland)
Chang Shan-chwen (Taiwan)
Anutin Charnvirakul (Thailand)
Chen Shih-chung (Taiwan)
Kenneth Chuang Yin-ching (Taiwan)
Victor Costache (Romania)
Fabrizio Curcio (Italy)
Carmen Deseda (Puerto Rico)
Jaap van Dissel (the Netherlands)
Christian Drosten (Germany)
Francisco Duque III (Philippines)
Anthony Fauci (United States)
Francesco Paolo Figliuolo (Italy)
Graça Freitas (Portugal)
Henrique Gouveia e Melo (Portugal)
Matt Hancock (United Kingdom)
Hamad Hasan (Lebanon)
Greg Hunt (Australia)
Tony Holohan (Ireland)
Jeong Eun-kyeong (South Korea)
Fahrettin Koca (Turkey)
Li Keqiang (China)
Hugo López-Gatell Ramírez (Mexico)
Michael McBride (Northern Ireland)
Oriol Mitjà (Andorra)
Zweli Mkhize (South Africa)
Doni Monardo (Indonesia)
Alma Möller (Iceland)
Saeed Namaki (Iran)
Ala Nemerenco (Moldova)
Nguyễn Thanh Long (Vietnam)
Noor Hisham Abdullah (Malaysia)
Ali Pilli (Northern Cyprus)
Daniel Salinas (Uruguay)
Jérôme Salomon (France)
Fernando Simón (Spain)
Gregor Smith (Scotland)
Su Ih-jen (Taiwan)
Łukasz Szumowski (Poland)
Theresa Tam (Canada)
Anders Tegnell (Sweden)
Þórólfur Guðnason (Iceland)
Sotiris Tsiodras (Greece)
Harsh Vardhan (India)
Víðir Reynisson (Iceland)
Carla Vizzotti (Argentina)
Vlad Voiculescu (Romania)
Chris Whitty (United Kingdom)
Lawrence Wong (Singapore)
Jeff Zients (United States)

Others

List of deaths due to COVID-19\n

Data (templates)

Global	\n WHO situation reports\n cases \n deaths \n World map by countries: confirmed per capita \n
Asia	\n Armenia\n Artsakh \n China\n confirmed per capita \n

Taxonomy of the Coronaviridae

Higher taxonomy: Riboviria > Orthornavirae > Pisuviricota > Pisoniviricetes > Nidovirales > Cornidovirineae > Coronaviridae

Coronavirus

Alphacoronavirus

Colacovirus

Bat coronavirus CDPHE15

Decacovirus

Duvinacovirus

Human coronavirus 229E

Luchacovirus

Lucheng Rn rat coronavirus

Minacovirus

Mink coronavirus 1

Minunacovirus

Myotacovirus

Myotis ricketti alphacoronavirus Sax-2011

Nyctacovirus

Pedacovirus

Rhinacovirus

Rhinolophus bat coronavirus HKU2

Setracovirus

Soracovirus

Sorex araneus coronavirus T14

Sunacovirus

Suncus murinus coronavirus X74

Tegacovirus

Alphacoronavirus 1\n

Betacoronavirus

Embecovirus

Betacoronavirus 1\n
- Bovine coronavirus
- Human coronavirus OC43
China Rattus coronavirus HKU24
Human coronavirus HKU1
Murine coronavirus\n
- Rat coronavirus
Myodes coronavirus 2JL14

Hibecovirus

Bat Hp-betacoronavirus Zhejiang2013

Merbecovirus

Nobecovirus

Sarbecovirus

SARS-related coronavirus\n
- SARS-CoV-1
- SARS-CoV-2\n
  - Variants
- BANAL-52
- Bat SARS-like coronavirus WIV1
- RacCS203
- RaTG13
- RmYN02
- RpYN06
- SHC014-CoV

Gammacoronavirus

Brangacovirus

Goose coronavirus CB17

Cegacovirus

Beluga whale coronavirus SW1

Igacovirus

Deltacoronavirus

Andecovirus

Wigeon coronavirus HKU20

Buldecovirus

Herdecovirus

Night heron coronavirus HKU19

Letovirinae

Alphaletovirus

Milecovirus

Microhyla letovirus 1

Source: ICTV –– $\"\"$ Wikispecies

Zoonotic viral diseases (A80–B34, 042–079)

Arthropod
-borne

Mosquito
-borne

Bunyavirales	\n Arbovirus encephalitides: Batai virus\n BATV \n Bwamba Fever\n BWAV \n California encephalitis\n CEV \n Jamestown Canyon encephalitis \n La Crosse encephalitis\n LACV \n Tahyna virus\n TAHV \n Tete virus \n Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Bunyamwera fever\n BUNV \n Ngari virus\n NRIV \n Rift Valley fever\n RVFV \n
Flaviviridae	\n Arbovirus encephalitides: Japanese encephalitis\n JEV \n Australian encephalitis\n MVEV \n KUNV \n Saint Louis encephalitis\n SLEV \n Usutu virus\n USUV \n West Nile fever\n WNV \n Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Dengue fever\n DENV-1-4 \n Yellow fever\n YFV \n Zika fever\n ZIKV \n
Togaviridae	\n Arbovirus encephalitides: Eastern equine encephalomyelitis\n EEEV \n Western equine encephalomyelitis\n WEEV \n Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis\n VEEV \n Chikungunya\n CHIKV \n O'nyong'nyong fever\n ONNV \n Pogosta disease\n Sindbis virus \n Ross River fever\n RRV \n Semliki Forest virus \n
Reoviridae	\n Banna virus encephalitis \n

Tick
-borne

Bunyavirales	\n Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV) \n Heartland virus \n Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (Huaiyangshan banyangvirus) \n Tete virus \n Arbovirus encephalitides: Bhanja virus \n
Flaviviridae	\n Arbovirus encephalitides: Tick-borne encephalitis\n TBEV \n Powassan encephalitis\n POWV \n Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Omsk hemorrhagic fever\n OHFV \n Kyasanur Forest disease\n KFDV \n AHFV \n Langat virus\n LGTV \n
Orthomyxoviridae	\n Bourbon virus \n
Reoviridae	\n Colorado tick fever\n CTFV \n Kemerovo tickborne viral fever \n

Sandfly
-borne

Bunyavirales	\n Adria virus (ADRV) \n Oropouche fever\n Oropouche virus \n Pappataci fever\n Toscana virus \n Sandfly fever Naples virus \n
Rhabdoviridae	\n Chandipura virus \n

Mammal
-borne

Rodent
-borne

Arenaviridae	\n Viral hemorrhagic fevers: Lassa fever\n LASV \n Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever\n GTOV \n Argentine hemorrhagic fever\n JUNV \n Brazilian hemorrhagic fever\n SABV \n Bolivian hemorrhagic fever\n MACV \n LUJV \n CHPV \n
Bunyavirales	\n Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome\n DOBV \n HTNV \n PUUV \n SEOV \n AMRV \n THAIV \n Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome\n ANDV \n SNV \n
Herpesviridae	\n Murid gammaherpesvirus 4 \n

Bat
-borne

Filoviridae	\n Ebola virus disease\n BDBV \n SUDV \n TAFV \n ZEBOV \n Marburg virus disease\n MARV \n RAVV \n
Rhabdoviridae	\n Rabies\n ABLV \n MOKV \n DUVV \n LBV \n CHPV \n
Paramyxoviridae	\n Henipavirus encephalitis\n HeV \n NiV \n
Coronaviridae	\n MERS-CoV \n SARS-related coronavirus\n SARS-CoV \n SARS-CoV-2 \n

Primate
-borne

Herpesviridae	\n B virus \n
Retroviridae	\n Simian foamy virus \n HTLV-1 \n HTLV-2 \n
Poxviridae	\n Tanapox \n Yaba monkey tumor virus \n

Multiple
vectors

Rhabdoviridae	\n Rabies\n RABV \n Mokola virus \n
Poxviridae	\n Monkeypox \n

Infectious diseases – viral systemic diseases

Oncovirus

DNA virus

HBV\n

Hepatocellular carcinoma

HPV\n

KSHV\n

EBV\n

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Burkitt lymphoma

Hodgkin lymphoma

Follicular dendritic cell sarcoma

Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type

MCPyV\n

Merkel-cell carcinoma

RNA virus

HCV\n

Hepatocellular carcinoma

Splenic marginal zone lymphoma

HTLV-I\n

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma

Immune disorders

HIV\n
- AIDS

Central
nervous system

Encephalitis/ meningitis	\n DNA virus \n Human polyomavirus 2\n Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy \n HSV\n Herpes simplex encephalitis \n Herpes meningitis \n VZV\n Herpes meningitis \n RNA virus \n MeV\n Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis \n LCV\n Lymphocytic choriomeningitis \n Arbovirus encephalitis \n Orthomyxoviridae (probable)\n Encephalitis lethargica \n RV\n Rabies \n Chandipura virus \n Ramsay Hunt syndrome type 2 \n
Myelitis	\n Poliovirus\n Poliomyelitis \n Post-polio syndrome \n HTLV-I\n Tropical spastic paraparesis \n
Eye	\n Cytomegalovirus\n Cytomegalovirus retinitis \n HSV\n Herpes of the eye \n

Cardiovascular

CBV\n
- Pericarditis
- Myocarditis

Respiratory system/
acute viral
nasopharyngitis/
viral pneumonia

DNA virus	\n Epstein–Barr virus\n EBV infection/Infectious mononucleosis \n Cytomegalovirus \n
RNA virus	\n IV: Coronavirus 229E/NL63/HKU1/OC43\n Common cold \n MERS coronavirus\n MERS \n SARS-CoV-1\n SARS \n SARS-CoV-2\n COVID-19 \n V, Orthomyxoviridae: Influenza virus A/B/C/D\n Influenza/Avian influenza \n V, Paramyxoviridae: Human parainfluenza viruses\n Parainfluenza \n Respiratory syncytial virus \n hMPV \n

Human
digestive system

Pharynx/Esophagus	\n MuV\n Mumps \n Cytomegalovirus\n Cytomegalovirus esophagitis \n
Gastroenteritis/ diarrhea	\n DNA virus \n Adenovirus\n Adenovirus infection \n RNA virus \n Rotavirus\n Gastroenteritis \n Norovirus \n Astrovirus \n Coronavirus \n
Hepatitis	\n DNA virus \n HBV (B) \n RNA virus \n CBV \n HAV (A) \n HCV (C) \n HDV (D) \n HEV (E) \n
Pancreatitis	\n CBV \n

Urogenital

BK virus
MuV\n
- Mumps

Portals:

SARS-CoV-2 at Wikipedia's sister projects:

$\"Wiktionary$ Definitions from Wiktionary
$\"Wikimedia$ Media from Commons
$\"\"$ Quotations from Wikiquote
$\"Wikisource$ Texts from Wikisource
$\"Wikibooks$ Textbooks from Wikibooks
$\"Wikiversity$ Resources from Wikiversity
$\"Wikivoyage$ Travel guides from Wikivoyage
$\"Wikispecies$ Taxa from Wikispecies
$\"\"$ Data from Wikidata

Classification	D ICD-10: U07.1 MeSH: D000086402 SNOMED CT: 840533007

Taxon identifiers
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2	\n Wikidata: Q82069695 \n Wikispecies: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 \n BioLib: 452475 \n EoL: 61004213 \n NCBI: 2697049 \n Plazi: 0382878D-FFFB-E849-B570-FDD812D497E2 \n

Authority control databases $\"Edit$
International	GND
National	France BnF data Czech Republic Spain

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Terminology

Infection and transmission

Asymptomatic and presymptomatic transmission

Reinfection

Reservoir and origin

Phylogenetics and taxonomy

Phylogenetic tree

Variants

Virology

Virus structure

Genome

Replication cycle

Treatment and drug development

Epidemiology

See also

References

Further reading

External links